- Illustrating Galen’s physiological teaching
The basic principle of life, in the Galenic physiology, is a spirit, anima or pneuma, drawn from the general world-soul in the act of respiration. It enters the body through the rough artery (τραχεῖα ἀρτηρία, arteria aspera of mediaeval notation), the organ known to our nomenclature as the trachea. From this trachea the pneuma passes to the lung and then, through the vein-like artery (ἀρτηρία φλεβώδης, arteria venalis of mediaeval writers, the pulmonary vein of our nomenclature), to the left ventricle. Here it will be best to leave it for a moment and trace the vascular system along a different route. - Julius Caesar
Julius Caesar (From the Bust in the British Museum.) - Hippocrates of Cos
Two other men with names greatly celebrated among the ancients may be referred to here, as representatives of what may be termed the Natural History group of sciences. One of them was a contemporary of Plato, the other was a pupil of Aristotle. The first is the famous physician HIPPOCRATES B.C. 470-375), to whom is attributed the foundation of medicine as a science. The healing of wounds and the cure of diseases is an art, and as such must have been practised in some form at a period coeval with the existence of mankind. The successful practice of this art depends largely upon knowledge of the causes, symptoms, and course of diseases, and upon a knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of the human body. - Reducing Dislocated Jaw
Reducing Dislocated Jaw - Venus Pompeiana
An altar stands before the statue of Venus. In pre-Roman times this may have been the only shrine in the city at which worship was offered to Herentas; for by that name the goddess of love was known in the native speech. Venus as goddess of the Roman colony, was represented in an altogether different guise, and had a special place of worship elsewhere - A Greek Clinic of 400 BC
A Greek Clinic of 400 BC In the centre sits a physician holding a lancet and bleeding a patient from the median vein at the bend of the right elbow into a large open basin. Above and behind the physician are suspended three cupping vessels. To the right sits another patient awaiting his turn; his left arm is bandaged in the region of the biceps. The figure beyond him smells a flower, perhaps as a preservative against infection. Behind the physician stands a man leaning on a staff; he is wounded in the left leg, which is bandaged. By his side stands a dwarfish figure with disproportionately large head, whose body exhibits deformities typical of the developmental disease now known as Achondroplasia; in addition to these deformities we note that his body is hairy and the bridge of his nose sunken; on his back he carries a hare which is almost as tall as himself. Talking to the dwarf is a man leaning on a long staff, who has the remains of a bandage round his chest. - Julius Cæsar
It is the custom of historians to treat these struggles with extreme respect. In particular the figure of Julius Cæsar is set up as if it were a star of supreme brightness and importance in the history of mankind. Yet a dispassionate consideration of the known facts fails altogether to justify this demi-god theory of Cæsar. Not even that precipitate wrecker of splendid possibilities, Alexander the Great, has been so magnified and dressed up for the admiration of careless and uncritical readers. - Reducing Dislocated Shoulder
Reducing Dislocated Shoulder - Achilles bandaging Patroclus,
A kylix from the Berlin Museum of about 490 b. c. It bears the inscription ΣΟΣΙΑΣ ΕΠΟΙΗΣΕΝ, Sosias made (me), and represents Achilles bandaging Patroclus, the names of the two heroes being written round the margin. The painter is Euphronios, and the work is regarded as the masterpiece of that great artist. The left upper arm of Patroclus is injured, and Achilles is bandaging it with a two-rolled bandage, which he is trying to bring down to extend over the elbow. The treatment of the hands, a department in which Euphronios excelled, is particularly fine. Achilles was not a trained surgeon, and it will be observed, from the position of the two tails of the bandage, that he will have some difficulty when it comes to its final fastening! - Egyptian Crotola or Castanets
Egyptian Crotola or Castanets - Toga
From Hope's "Costume of the Ancients." The material of the toga was wool, in the earlier time and for the common people; afterwards silk and other materials were used, coloured or bordered according to the `rank` or station of the wearer. - Hunifer
- Augustus
Augustus When Augustus entered upon secure possession of absolute power, the Roman Empire included the fairest and most famous lands on the face of the globe and all the civilised peoples of the ancient world found a place in its ample bosom. - Priest
The illustration shows a priest wearing nothing but a loin cloth and a leopard skin. - Plato (from an ancient gem)
PLATO (B.C. 427 -374), whose name is so illustrious in philosophy has directly and indirectly largely influenced the course of intellectual development and scientific thought. Before Plato had become the disciple of Socrates, he had been a student of the philosophY of Heraclitus, one of whose prominent doctrines was that all things are in a state of ceaseless change, so that, for example, no one could ever be twice on the same river, inasmuch as the water is ever changing. About the age of twenty Plato became a disciple of Socrates, and continued so until the death of the latter, nine years afterwards. Plato then visited various countries, as Egypt, Persia, Sicily, and Italy. On returning to Athens he established his renowned school of philosophy amid the groves of Academus, near Athens; and this place has given a common title to schools of art, learning, and science throughout the world. Plato lived to an advanced age and left behind him many writings, now esteemed amongst the most precious legacies that antiquity has bequeathed to us. It was the practice of Socrates to constantly seek for definitions of justice, beauty, and so on, and this of course implied that he thought that in some things at least there was something permanent. Plato managed in his famous doctrine of Ideas to reconcile and combine the conflicting views of Heraclitus and of Socrates. This doctrine gave rise aftenvards to endless disputations, which for the most part diverted men's minds from the observation- of nature. - Grecian harp and lyre
The representation of Polyhymnia with a harp, depicted on a splendid Greek vase now in the Munich museum, may be noted as an exceptional instance. This valuable relic dates from the time of Alexander the great. The instrument resembles in construction as well as in shape the Assyrian harp, and has thirteen strings. Polyhymnia is touching them with both hands, using the right hand for the treble and the left for the bass. She is seated, holding the instrument in her lap. Even the little tuning-pegs, which in number are not in accordance with the strings, are placed on the sound-board at the upper part of the frame, exactly as on the Assyrian harp. If then we have here the Greek harp, it was more likely an importation from Asia than from Egypt. In short, as far as can be ascertained, the most complete of the Greek instruments appear to be of Asiatic origin. - Samnite Warriors
Samnite Warriors (From painted vases) The Romans completely beaten by the Samnites at the battle of the Caudine Forks - Hydraulic Organ
To the Etruscans is also attributed by some the invention of the hydraulic organ. The Greeks possessed a somewhat similar contrivance which they called hydraulos, i.e. water-flute, and which probably was identical with the organum hydraulicum of the Romans. The instrument ought more properly to be regarded as a pneumatic organ, for the sound was produced by the current of air through the pipes; the water applied serving merely to give the necessary pressure to the bellows and to regulate their action. The pipes were probably caused to sound by means of stops, perhaps resembling those on our organ, which were drawn out or pushed in. The construction was evidently but a primitive contrivance, contained in a case which could be carried by one or two persons and which was placed on a table. The highest degree of perfection which the hydraulic organ obtained with the ancients is perhaps shown in a representation on a coin of the emperor Nero, in the British museum. Only ten pipes are given to it and there is no indication of any key board, which would probably have been shown had it existed. The man standing at the side and holding a laurel leaf in his hand is surmised to represent a victor in the exhibitions of the circus or the amphitheatre. The hydraulic organ probably was played on such occasions; and the medal containing an impression of it may have been bestowed upon the victor. - sixth to fifth centuries B.C.
Persian Costume of 6th to 5th Century BC - Paris on Mount Ida
An illustration is given, from Hope's "Costume of the Ancients," of Paris on Mount Ida, in which he is figured as wearing a closely fitting garment which covers the whole body and limbs, being buttoned all the way up the legs and arms; a short tunic, also buttoned up the front, being worn over this dress - Damsels singing to the Sound of Timbrels
The next natural step for the use of music would be that of victory and triumph. The first notice of this kind is the song of Miriam. And here we may rightly conjecture the introduction of an Egyptian, and therefore cultured element. " Miriam took a timbrel in her hand, and all the women went out after her with timbrels and with dances " (Exod. xv. 2o). - Horus, the son of Isis, leading the scribe Ani into the presence of Osiris, the god and judge of the dead
Horus, the son of Isis, leading the scribe Ani into the presence of Osiris, the god and judge of the dead; before the shrine of the god Am kneels in adoration and presents offerings. - Triangular Musical instrument from Herculaneum
A Sambuca or triangular harp - Greek Figure
- Greek Figure
From Hope's "Costume of the Ancients." With the Greeks the tunic was the principal article of attire. It was worn next to the skin, and was of a light tissue. In the earlier time it was composed of wool, in later periods of flax, and in the latest periods it was either of flax mixed with silk or of pure silk. The illustration given will serve to show its construction. It was a simple square bag, open at the two ends, made sufficiently wide to admit of the folds being ample, and sufficiently long to allow of its being gathered up about the waist and breasts. It was kept in its place by various means, either by a simple girdle round the waist or by cords drawn crosswise between the breasts, over the shoulders, looped at the back, and again drawn round the waist, or by an arrangement of cords or ribbons drawn over each shoulder and attached to the girdle. - Pharaoh Chephren
The earlier Pharaohs were not improbably regarded as incarnations of the dominant god. The falcon god Horus sits behind the head of the great statue of Chephren. It was Cheops and Chephren and Mycerinus of this IVth Dynasty who raised the vast piles of the great and the second and the third pyramids at Gizeh. These unmeaning sepulchral piles, of an almost incredible vastness, erected in an age when engineering science had scarcely begun, exhausted the resources of Egypt through three long reigns, and left her wasted as if by a war. - Outline plan of Pompeii
The Regions are given as they were laid out by Fiorelli, the boundaries being marked by broken lines. The Insulae are designated by Arabic numerals. Stabian Street, between Stabian and Vesuvius gates, separating Regions VIII, VII, and VI, from I, IX, and V, is often called Cardo, from analogy with the cardo maximus (the north and south line) of a Roman camp. Nola Street, leading from the Nola Gate, with its continuations (Strada della Fortuna, south of Insulae 10, 12, 13, and 14 of Region VI, and Strada della Terme, south of VI, 4, 6, 8), was for similar reasons designated as the Greater Decuman, Decumanus Maior; while the street running from the Water Gate to the Sarno Gate (Via Marina, Abbondanza Street, Strada dei Diadumeni) is called the Lesser Decuman, Decumanus Minor. The only Regions wholly excavated are VII and VIII; but only a small portion of Region VI remains covered. The towers of the city wall are designated by numbers, as they are supposed to have been at the time of the siege of Sulla, in 89 B.C. - Hippocrates of Cos
Hippocrates - Akhnaton driving with his Wife and Daughter
Akhnaton driving with his Wife and Daughter - The Street of Tombs
The Street of Tombs 24. Villa of Diomedes. 16-23. Tombs—Group III. 16. Unfinished tomb. 17. Tomb of Umbricius Scaurus. 18. Round tomb. 19. Sepulchral enclosure. 20. Tomb of Calventius Quietus. 21. Sepulchral enclosure of Istacidius Helenus. 22. Tomb of Naevoleia Tyche. 23. Triclinium Funebre. 5-15. So-called Villa of Cicero. 1-4 a. Tombs—Group I. 1. Sepulchral niche of Cerrinius Restitutus. 2. Sepulchral bench of A. Veius. 3. Tomb of M. Porcius. 4. Sepulchral bench of Mamia. 4 a. Tomb of the Istacidii. A. Herculaneum Gate. C. Bay Road. KEY TO THE RIGHT SIDE 33-43. Tombs—Group IV. 33. Unfinished tomb. 34. Tomb with the marble door. 35. Unfinished tomb. 36. Sepulchral enclosure with small pyramids. 37. Tomb of Luccius Libella. 38. Tomb of Ceius Labeo. 39. Tomb without a name. 40. Sepulchral niche of Salvius. 41. Sepulchral niche of Velasius Gratus. 42. Tomb of M. Arrius Diomedes. 43. Tomb of Arria. 31-32. Samnite Graves. 10-30. Villa. 10, 11, 13, 14. Shops. 12. Garden belonging to Tombs 8 and 9. 15. Street entrance of Inn. 16-28. Rooms belonging to the Inn. 29-30. Potter's establishment. 1-9. Tombs—Group II. 1. Tomb without a name. 2. Sepulchral enclosure of Terentius Felix. 3, 4. Tombs without names. 5. Sepulchral enclosure. 6. Garland tomb. 7. Sepulchral enclosure. 8. Tomb of the Blue Glass Vase. 9. Sepulchral niche. A. Herculaneum Gate. B. City Wall. D. Road along City Wall. E-E. Vesuvius Road. - North end of the Forum, with the Temple of Jupiter
North end of the Forum, with the Temple of Jupiter - Roman
- Sumerian Warriors in Phalanx
Perhaps the earliest people to form real cities in this part of the world, or indeed in any part of the world, were a people of mysterious origin called the Sumerians. They were neither Semites nor Aryans, and whence they came we do not know. Whether they were dark whites of Iberian or Dravidian affinities is less certainly to be denied.[103] They used a kind of writing which they scratched upon clay, and their language has been deciphered. - A diaulos
The single flute was called monaulos, and the double one diaulos. A diaulos, which was found in a tomb at Athens, is in the British museum. The wood of which it is made seems to be cedar, and the tubes are fifteen inches in length. Each tube has a separate mouth-piece and six finger-holes, five of which are at the upper side and one is underneath. - The Villa Rustica near Boscoreale
A. Court. 1, 5. Cistern curbs. 2. Wash basin of masonry. 3. Lead reservoir from which water was conducted to the reservoir in the kitchen supplying the bath. 4. Steps leading to the reservoir. B. Kitchen. 1. Hearth. 2. Reservoir containing water for the bath. 3. Stairway to rooms over the bath. 4. Entrance to cellar under the inner end of the first wine press, in which were the fastenings of the standard of the press beam. C-F. Bath. C. Furnace room. D. Apodyterium. E. Tepidarium. F. Caldarium. H. Stable. J. Tool Room. K, L. Sleeping Rooms. N. Dining Room. M. Anteroom. O. Bakery. 1. Mill. 2. Oven. P. Room with Two Wine Presses. 1, 1. Foundations of the presses. 2, 2, 2. Receptacles for the grape juice, dolia. 3. Cistern for the product of the second pressing, lacus. 4. Holes for the standards of the press beams. 5, 5. Holes for the posts at the ends of the two windlasses used in raising and lowering the press beams. 6. Pit affording access to the framework by which the windlass posts were tied down. Q. Corridor. 1. Round vats, dolia. R. Court for the Fermentation of Wine. 1. Channel for the fresh grape juice coming from P. 2. Fermentation vats, dolia. 3. Lead kettle over a fireplace. 4. Cistern curb. S. Barn, nubilarium (?). T. Threshing Floor, area. U. Open Cistern for the Water falling on the Threshing Floor. V-V. Sleeping Rooms. W. Entrance to Cellar under the Inner End of the Second Wine Press; see B. 4. X. Room with Hand Mill. Y. Room with Oil Press. 1. Foundation of the press. 2. Hole for the standard of the press beam. 3. Entrance to cellar with appliances for securing the press beam. 4. Holes for the windlass posts. 5. Hole affording access to the fastenings of the windlass posts. 6. Receptacle for the oil, gemellar. Z. Room containing the Olive Crusher. - Roman Coin Celebrating the Victory over Pyrrhus
Roman Coin Struck to Commemorate the Victory over Pyrrhus and His Elephants. - Egyptian Harp, showing its original bow-like shape
The history of the Harp may be traced with much the same clearness. The twanging of the bow probably suggested the original idea; and the variation of sound was obtained by lengthening and shortening a multiplicity of strings. These were made, at first, of some fibrous material, or the long hair of animals. Perhaps even the tresses of wives and daughters were turned to such musical use, as we read in the Greek and Roman historians that the bows of the Carthaginians were thus supplied with strings in their last war with the Romans. Harps, too, like the bow, were portable, about four feet long; and all Oriental harps, so far as we can judge from surviving sculptures, unlike ours, had no front pillar. Their bow-like shape and characteristics long remained. Without entering at greater length on their further and later development, we can easily imagine how soon the need of pegs for tightening and loosening the strings was felt; how a sounding-board was found to add to the body of sound; how Strings of fibre or hair were supplanted by those of catgut, of steel, and even of silver. Whether the fingers or whether the quill and plectrum were the first manipulators of the strings, is a matter of debate. Certainly fingers were made long before either quills or plectra! Be it as it may, after these latter had been introduced, hammers wielded by the hand in due time followed. And thus we see how the "stringed instruments" of primaeval and ancient days became the parent of the dulcimer, the spinet, the harpsichord, and the piano. - Roman girl and tibia
The British museum contains a mosaic figure of a Roman girl playing the tibia, which is stated to have been disinterred in the year 1823 on the Via Appia. Here the holmos or mouth-piece, somewhat resembling the reed of our oboe, is distinctly shown. The finger-holes, probably four, are not indicated, although they undoubtedly existed on the instrument. - Rowers in an Athenian Warship, 400 B.C.
Rowers in an Athenian warship, about 400 B.C. (Fragment of relief found on the Acropolis) - Egyptian
- Double Pipes
".. put two such pipes into the mouth, and you get the double Egyptian and Assyrian pipe, such as may be still seen sculptured on their monuments. In the holes or apertures of some of these pipes, which have been discovered in the tombs and other places, small straws have been found, plainly intended to act the part of reeds in our modern oboes and clarionets. " - Roman trumpets
The tuba was a straight trumpet. Both the cornu and the tuba were employed in war to convey signals. The same was the case with the buccina,—originally perhaps a conch shell, and afterwards a simple horn of an animal,—and the lituus, which was bent at the broad end but otherwise straight. - The Forum Triangulare, with Adjacent Buildings
A. Portico at the Entrance of the Forum Triangulare. B. Forum Triangulare. 1, 1. Colonnade. 2. Promenade. 3. Doric temple. 4. Semicircular bench, with sundial. 5. Sepulchral enclosure. 6. Altars. 7. Well house. 8. Pedestal of the statue of Marcellus. C. Open-air Gymnasium—Palaestra. 1. Colonnade. 2. Pedestal with steps behind it. 3, 3. Dressing rooms. D. Tank for Saffron Water. E. Large Theatre. 1. Dressing room. 2. Stage. 3. Orchestra. 4. Ima cavea. 5. Media cavea. 6. Summa cavea, over a corridor. 7, 7. Tribunals. F. Small Theatre. 1. Dressing room. 2. Stage. 3, 3. Tribunalia. G. Theatre Colonnade, used as Barracks for Gladiators. 1. Passage leading from Stabian Street. 2. Entrance. 3. Doorkeeper's room. 4. Passage to the Large Theatre, walled up. 5. Stairway leading down from the Forum Triangulare. 6. Athletes' waiting room—Exedra. 7. Room with remains of weapons and cloth. 8. Guard room. 9. Stairs leading to overseer's rooms. 10. Kitchen. 11. Mess room. H. Temple of Zeus Milichius. 1. Colonnade. 2. Altar. 3. Cella. 4. Sacristan's room. I. Temple of Isis. 1. Colonnade. 2. Cella. 3. Shrine of Harpocrates. 4. Purgatorium. 5. Hall of initiation. 6. Hall of the Mysteries. 7. Priest's residence. K. City Wall. L. Foundations of Steps. - Hannibal's Elephants crossing the Rhone on rafts
The animals are steadying themselves by gripping a special rail with their trunks. - The weighing of the heart of the scribe Ani in the Balance in the presence of the gods
The weighing of the heart of the scribe Ani in the Balance in the presence of the gods. - The Elysian Fields of the Egyptians according to the Papyrus of Nebseni (XVIIIth dynasty)
The Elysian Fields of the Egyptians according to the Papyrus of Nebseni (XVIIIth dynasty) - Colobium
Shape. This garment varied in width across the shoulders. The greater the distance between the neck-hole and the edge of the top corner (see A B), the more the upper arm was hidden. This has the misleading effect of a sleeve to the elbow. The Romans had a great aversion to anything in the nature of a close arm covering, so the fashion of wearing long shaped separate sleeves, set by Alexander the Great, was not followed at Rome, as it was considered unmanly; besides, such sleeves were worn by foreigners and barbarians, so naturally this mode was distasteful to the patriotic intolerance of a Roman citizen. The Greek " kolobus," called by the Romans the "colobium." Another name for this garment was the "tunica". When more than one was worn, the under ones were called the "tunica interior" or "subucula." A long tunica was called "tunica talaris." - The soul of Rā
The soul of Rā (1) meeting the soul of Osiris (2) in Tattu, The cat (i.e., Rā) by the Persea tree (3) cutting off the head of the serpent which typified night. - The Paenula
A cloak of cloth copied from the Greek peasants. It was in common use among all classes, both men and women, as a travelling or rain cloak, and was an important garment with the peasantry. In colour it was dark, and in shape a semicircle with the straight edges fastened down the centre-front, converting it into a bell or funnel. Alternatively, the edges were sewn together down the front; but in either case it fitted close round the figure. A hole was left for the head, which was usually encircled with a hood. - Burning the Dead - Etruscan Ceremony
Etruscan painting of a Ceremonial Burning of the Dead - Discovery of loaves of bread baked 1800 years ago, at Pompeii
Pompeii was preserved, and not destroyed. To its inhabitant, on the day of the eruption it was destroyed; but for us who now look upon it, and study its history, it has been preserved. ... There was one oven which remained uninjured. It had two openings; the loaves went into one of these, in the shape of dough, and were taken out at the other opening baked. Everything seemed to be in a fine state of preservation, and the oven could be made use of again for a repetition of its work of eighteen centuries ago. The oven when found was full of bread. Some of the loaves were stamped to indicate that they were of wheat flour, and others to indicate that they were of bran flour. The oven had been carefully sealed, and there were no ashes in it. Eighty-one loaves were found in it, a little stale, to be sure, and very hard and black, but lying in the same order in which they were placed on the 23d of November in the year 79. - Isis suckling Horus in the papyrus swamp
1. Isis suckling her child Horus in the papyrus swamps. 2. Thoth giving the emblem of magical protection to Isis. 3. Amen-Rā presenting the symbol of "life" to Isis. 4. The goddess Nekhebet presenting years, and life, stability, power, and sovereignty to the son of Osiris. 5. The goddess Sati presenting periods of years, and life, stability, power, and sovereignty to the son of Osir - The Elysian Fields of the Egyptians according to the Papyrus of Ani (XVIIIth dynasty)
The Elysian Fields of the Egyptians according to the Papyrus of Ani (XVIIIth dynasty) - Anhai bowing before her father and mother. The Elysian Fields. From the Papyrus of Anhai (XXIInd dynasty)
Anhai bowing before her father and mother. The Elysian Fields. From the Papyrus of Anhai (XXIInd dynasty) - Egyptian Gods—Set, Anubis, Typhon, Bes
In all these temples there was a shrine; dominating the shrine there was commonly a great figure, usually of some monstrous half-animal form, before which stood an altar for sacrifices. This figure was either regarded as the god or as the image or symbol of the god, for whose worship the temple existed. And connected with the temple there were a number, and often a considerable number, of priests or priestesses, and temple servants, generally wearing a distinctive costume and forming an important part of the city population. - The Creation
The god Nu rising out of the primeval water and bearing in his hands the boat of Rā, the Sun-god, who is accompanied by a number of deities. In the upper portion of the scene is the region of the underworld which is enclosed by the body of Osiris, on whose head stands the goddess Nut with arms stretched out to receive the disk of the sun. - The Sky as a cow
The Sky as a cow, supported by Shu and other gods. Across her body are the stars, and the barks of the sun. (Tomb of Seti I) - Greek Flutes
The flute, aulos, of which there were many varieties, was a highly popular instrument, and differed in construction from the flutes and pipes of the ancient Egyptians. Instead of being blown through a hole at the side near the top it was held like a flageolet, and a vibrating reed was inserted into the mouth-piece, so that it might be more properly described as a kind of oboe or clarionet. The Greeks were accustomed to designate by the name of aulos all wind instruments of the flute and oboe kind, some of which were constructed like the flageolet or like our antiquated flûte à bec. - Figure of Bes
Bes seems also to have been a divinity of the same class {Evil Gods]. He was represented as a hideous dwarf, with large outstanding ears, bald, or with a plume of feathers on his head, and with a lion-skin down his back, often carrying in his two hands two knives. - Serapis
The long list of gods was further increased in two ways. The priests sometimes made a new god by uniting two or three, or four into one, and at other times by dividing one into two or three or more. Thus out of Horus and Ra they made Horus-Ra, called by the Greeks Aroeric. Out of Osiris and Apis the bull of Memphis made of Osiris-Apis or Serapis. He carries the two sceptres of Osiris and has a bull's head.